Back Еинштеин, Алберт Abkhazian Albert Einstein Afrikaans Albert Einstein ALS አልበርት አይንስታይን Amharic Albert Einstein AN Albert Einstein ANG ऐल्बर्ट आइनस्टाइन ANP ألبرت أينشتاين Arabic ألبيرط أينشطاين ARY البرت اينشتاين ARZ
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Albert Einstein (/ˈaɪnstaɪn/, EYEN-styne;[4] German: [ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics.[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from special relativity, has been called "the world's most famous equation".[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect
.[7]
Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin, becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in 1917; he also became a German citizen again, while remaining Swiss. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi persecution of his fellow Jews,[8] he decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.[9] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommended that the US begin similar research. He viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.[10]
In 1905, he published four groundbreaking papers, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year).[11] These papers outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity, and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.[12][13] In 1917, Einstein wrote a paper which laid the foundations for the concepts of both laser and maser, and contained a trove of information that would be beneficial to developments in physics later on, such as quantum electrodynamics and quantum optics.[14] A joint paper in 1935, with physicist Nathan Rosen, introduced the notion of a wormhole.[15]
In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose-Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that ultimately proved unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that God does not play dice
.[16] Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from mainstream modern physics. In 1999, he was named Time's Person of the Century.[17]
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frswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "The Gold Medal" (PDF). Royal Astronomical Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
- ^ "Membership directory". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
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BoyerDubofsky2001was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons". wiseinternational.org. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
- ^ Galison (2000), p. 377.
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NYT-20151124was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Kleppner, Daniel (1 February 2005). "Rereading Einstein on Radiation". Physics Today. 58 (2): 30–33. Bibcode:2005PhT....58b..30K. doi:10.1063/1.1897520. ISSN 0031-9228.
- ^ Einstein & Rosen (1935).
- ^ Robinson, Andrew (30 April 2018). "Did Einstein really say that?". Nature. 557 (30): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 14013938. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
- ^ "Albert Einstein". Time. 31 December 1999.
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